#define預處理

＃define預處理器指令創建符號常量。

＃define可以定義一個符號，例如，通過使用符號的表達傳遞給＃if指令，表達式的值為true。它的語法如下：

#define symbol

下麵的程序說明了這一點：

#define PI 
using System;
namespace PreprocessorDAppl
{
   class Program
   {
      static void Main(string[] args)
      {
         #if (PI)
            Console.WriteLine("PI is defined");
         #else
            Console.WriteLine("PI is not defined");
         #endif
         Console.ReadKey();
      }
   }
}

上麵的代碼編譯和執行時，它會產生以下結果：

PI is defined

條件指令

您可以使用＃if指令創造條件指令。有條件的指令是有用的符號，用於測試，看看他們是否計算為true。如果他們不計算為true，則編譯器將計算出所有＃if和下一個指令之間的代碼。

條件指令的語法是：

#if symbol [operator symbol]...

Where, symbol is the name of the symbol you want to test. You can also use true and false or prepend the symbol with the negation operator.

The operator symbol is the operator used for evaluating the symbol. Operators could be either of the following:

== (equality)
!= (inequality)
&& (and)
|| (or)

You can also group symbols and operators with parentheses. Conditional directives are used for compiling code for a debug build or when compiling for a specific configuration. A conditional directive beginning with a #if directive must explicitly be terminated with a #endif directive.

The following program demonstrates use of conditional directives:

#define DEBUG
#define VC_V10
using System;
public class TestClass
{
   public static void Main()
   {

      #if (DEBUG && !VC_V10)
         Console.WriteLine("DEBUG is defined");
      #elif (!DEBUG && VC_V10)
         Console.WriteLine("VC_V10 is defined");
      #elif (DEBUG && VC_V10)
         Console.WriteLine("DEBUG and VC_V10 are defined");
      #else
         Console.WriteLine("DEBUG and VC_V10 are not defined");
      #endif
      Console.ReadKey();
   }
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:

DEBUG and VC_V10 are defined

C# - Regular Expressions

A regular expression is a pattern that could be matched against an input text. The .Net framework provides a regular expression engine that allows such matching. A pattern consists of one or more character literals, operators, or constructs.

Constructs for Defining Regular Expressions

There are various categories of characters, operators, and constructs that lets you to define regular expressions. Click the follwoing links to find these constructs.

The Regex Class

The Regex class is used for representing a regular expression.

The Regex class has the following commonly used methods:

S.N	Methods & Description
1	public bool IsMatch( string input ) Indicates whether the regular expression specified in the Regex constructor finds a match in a specified input string.
2	public bool IsMatch( string input, int startat ) Indicates whether the regular expression specified in the Regex constructor finds a match in the specified input string, beginning at the specified starting position in the string.
3	public static bool IsMatch( string input, string pattern ) Indicates whether the specified regular expression finds a match in the specified input string.
4	public MatchCollection Matches( string input ) Searches the specified input string for all occurrences of a regular expression.
5	public string Replace( string input, string replacement ) In a specified input string, replaces all strings that match a regular expression pattern with a specified replacement string.
6	public string[] Split( string input ) Splits an input string into an array of substrings at the positions defined by a regular expression pattern specified in the Regex constructor.

For the complete list of methods and properties, please read the Microsoft documentation on C#.

Example 1

The following example matches words that start with 'S':

using System;
using System.Text.RegularExpressions;

namespace RegExApplication
{
   class Program
   {
      private static void showMatch(string text, string expr)
      {
         Console.WriteLine("The Expression: " + expr);
         MatchCollection mc = Regex.Matches(text, expr);
         foreach (Match m in mc)
         {
            Console.WriteLine(m);
         }
      }
      static void Main(string[] args)
      {
         string str = "A Thousand Splendid Suns";

         Console.WriteLine("Matching words that start with 'S': ");
         showMatch(str, @"\bS\S*");
         Console.ReadKey();
      }
   }
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:

Matching words that start with 'S':
The Expression: \bS\S*
Splendid
Suns

C# - 異常處理

An exception is a problem that arises during the execution of a program. A C# exception is a response to an exceptional circumstance that arises while a program is running, such as an attempt to divide by zero.

Exceptions provide a way to transfer control from one part of a program to another. C# exception handling is built upon four keywords: try, catch, finally and throw.

try: A try block identifies a block of code for which particular exceptions will be activated. It's followed by one or more catch blocks.
catch: A program catches an exception with an exception handler at the place in a program where you want to handle the problem. The catch keyword indicates the catching of an exception.
finally: The finally block is used to execute a given set of statements, whether an exception is thrown or not thrown. For example, if you open a file, it must be closed whether an exception is raised or not.
throw: A program throws an exception when a problem shows up. This is done using a throw keyword.

語法

Assuming a block will raise and exception, a method catches an exception using a combination of the try and catch keywords. A try/catch block is placed around the code that might generate an exception. Code within a try/catch block is referred to as protected code, and the syntax for using try/catch looks like the following:

try
{
   // statements causing exception
}
catch( ExceptionName e1 )
{
   // error handling code
}
catch( ExceptionName e2 )
{
   // error handling code
}
catch( ExceptionName eN )
{
   // error handling code
}
finally
{
   // statements to be executed
}

You can list down multiple catch statements to catch different type of exceptions in case your try block raises more than one exception in different situations.

C#的異常類

C# exceptions are represented by classes. The exception classes in C# are mainly directly or indirectly derived from the System.Exception class. Some of the exception classes derived from the System.Exception class are the System.ApplicationException and System.SystemException classes.

The System.ApplicationException class supports exceptions generated by application programs. So the exceptions defined by the programmers should derive from this class.

The System.SystemException class is the base class for all predefined system exception.

The following table provides some of the predefined exception classes derived from the Sytem.SystemException class:

Exception Class	Description
System.IO.IOException	Handles I/O errors.
System.IndexOutOfRangeException	Handles errors generated when a method refers to an array index out of range.
System.ArrayTypeMismatchException	Handles errors generated when type is mismatched with the array type.
System.NullReferenceException	Handles errors generated from deferencing a null object.
System.DivideByZeroException	Handles errors generated from dividing a dividend with zero.
System.InvalidCastException	Handles errors generated during typecasting.
System.OutOfMemoryException	Handles errors generated from insufficient free memory.
System.StackOverflowException	Handles errors generated from stack overflow.

Handling Exceptions

C# provides a structured solution to the exception handling problems in the form of try and catch blocks. Using these blocks the core program statements are separated from the error-handling statements.

These error handling blocks are implemented using the try, catch and finally keywords. Following is an example of throwing an exception when dividing by zero condition occurs:

using System;
namespace ErrorHandlingApplication
{
    class DivNumbers
    {
        int result;
        DivNumbers()
        {
            result = 0;
        }
        public void division(int num1, int num2)
        {
            try
            {
                result = num1 / num2;
            }
            catch (DivideByZeroException e)
            {
                Console.WriteLine("Exception caught: {0}", e);
            }
            finally
            {
                Console.WriteLine("Result: {0}", result);
            }

        }
        static void Main(string[] args)
        {
            DivNumbers d = new DivNumbers();
            d.division(25, 0);
            Console.ReadKey();
        }
    }
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:

Exception caught: System.DivideByZeroException: Attempted to divide by zero. 
at ...
Result: 0

C# - File I/O

A file is a collection of data stored in a disk with a specific name and a directory path. When a file is opened for reading or writing, it becomes a stream.

The stream is basically the sequence of bytes passing through the communication path. There are two main streams: the input stream and the output stream. The input stream is used for reading data from file (read operation) and the output stream is used for writing into the file (write operation).

C# I/O Classes

The System.IO namespace has various class that are used for performing various operation with files, like creating and deleting files, reading from or writing to a file, closing a file etc.

The following table shows some commonly used non-abstract classes in the System.IO namespace:

I/O Class	Description
BinaryReader	Reads primitive data from a binary stream.
BinaryWriter	Writes primitive data in binary format.
BufferedStream	A temporary storage for a stream of bytes.
Directory	Helps in manipulating a directory structure.
DirectoryInfo	Used for performing operations on directories.
DriveInfo	Provides information for the drives.
File	Helps in manipulating files.
FileInfo	Used for performing operations on files.
FileStream	Used to read from and write to any location in a file.
MemoryStream	Used for random access to streamed data stored in memory.
Path	Performs operations on path information.
StreamReader	Used for reading characters from a byte stream.
StreamWriter	Is used for writing characters to a stream.
StringReader	Is used for reading from a string buffer.
StringWriter	Is used for writing into a string buffer.

The FileStream Class

The FileStream class in the System.IO namespace helps in reading from, writing to and closing files. This class derives from the abstract class Stream.

You need to create a FileStream object to create a new file or open an existing file. The syntax for creating a FileStream object is as follows:

FileStream <object_name> = new FileStream( <file_name>,
<FileMode Enumerator>, <FileAccess Enumerator>, <FileShare Enumerator>);

For example, for creating a FileStream object F for reading a file named sample.txt:

FileStream F = new FileStream("sample.txt", FileMode.Open, FileAccess.Read, FileShare.Read);

Parameter	Description
FileMode	The FileMode enumerator defines various methods for opening files. The members of the FileMode enumerator are: Append: It opens an existing file and puts cursor at the end of file, or creates the file, if the file does not exist. Create: It creates a new file. CreateNew: It specifies to the operating system, that it should create a new file. Open: It opens an existing file. OpenOrCreate: It specifies to the operating system that it should open a file if it exists, otherwise it should create a new file. Truncate: It opens an existing file and truncates its size to zero bytes.
FileAccess	FileAccess enumerators have members: Read, ReadWrite and Write.
FileShare	FileShare enumerators have the following members: Inheritable: It allows a file handle to pass inheritance to the child processes None: It declines sharing of the current file Read: It allows opening the file for reading ReadWrite: It allows opening the file for reading and writing Write: It allows opening the file for writing

Parameter

Description

FileMode

The FileMode enumerator defines various methods for opening files. The members of the FileMode enumerator are:

Append: It opens an existing file and puts cursor at the end of file, or creates the file, if the file does not exist.
Create: It creates a new file.
CreateNew: It specifies to the operating system, that it should create a new file.
Open: It opens an existing file.
OpenOrCreate: It specifies to the operating system that it should open a file if it exists, otherwise it should create a new file.
Truncate: It opens an existing file and truncates its size to zero bytes.

FileAccess

FileAccess enumerators have members: Read, ReadWrite and Write.

FileShare

FileShare enumerators have the following members:

Inheritable: It allows a file handle to pass inheritance to the child processes
None: It declines sharing of the current file
Read: It allows opening the file for reading
ReadWrite: It allows opening the file for reading and writing
Write: It allows opening the file for writing

Example:

The following program demonstrates use of the FileStream class:

using System;
using System.IO;

namespace FileIOApplication
{
    class Program
    {
        static void Main(string[] args)
        {
            FileStream F = new FileStream("test.dat", 
            FileMode.OpenOrCreate, FileAccess.ReadWrite);

            for (int i = 1; i <= 20; i++)
            {
                F.WriteByte((byte)i);
            }

            F.Position = 0;

            for (int i = 0; i <= 20; i++)
            {
                Console.Write(F.ReadByte() + " ");
            }
            F.Close();
            Console.ReadKey();
        }
    }
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 -1

C# - Attributes

An attribute is a declarative tag that is used to convey information to runtime about the behaviors of various elements like classes, methods, structures, enumerators, assemblies etc., in your program. You can add declarative information to a program by using an attribute. A declarative tag is depicted by square ([ ]) brackets placed above the element it is used for.

Attributes are used for adding metadata, such as compiler instruction and other information such as comments, description, methods and classes to a program. The .Net Framework provides two types of attributes: the pre-defined attributes and custom built attributes.

Specifying an Attribute

Syntax for specifying an attribute is as follows:

[attribute(positional_parameters, name_parameter = value, ...)]
element

Name of the attribute and its values are specified within the square brackets, before the element to which the attribute is applied. Positional parameters specify the essential information and the name parameters specify the optional information.

Predefined Attributes

The .Net Framework provides three pre-defined attributes:

AttributeUsage
Conditional
Obsolete

AttributeUsage:

The pre-defined attribute AttributeUsage describes how a custom attribute class can be used. It specifies the types of items to which the attribute can be applied.

Syntax for specifying this attribute is as follows:

[AttributeUsage(
   validon,
   AllowMultiple=allowmultiple,
   Inherited=inherited
)]

Where,

The parameter validon specifies the language elements on which the attribute can be placed. It is a combination of the value of an enumerator AttributeTargets. The default value is AttributeTargets.All.
The parameter allowmultiple (optional) provides value for the AllowMultiple property of this attribute, a Boolean value. If this is true, the attribute is multiuse. The default is false (single-use).
The parameter inherited (optional) provides value for the Inherited property of this attribute, a Boolean value. If it is true, the attribute is inherited by derived classes. The default value is false (not inherited).

For example,

[AttributeUsage(AttributeTargets.Class |
AttributeTargets.Constructor |
AttributeTargets.Feild |
AttributeTargets.Method |
AttributeTargets.Property, 
AllowMultiple = true)]

Conditional

This predefined attribute marks a conditional method whose execution depends on a specified preprocessing identifier.

It causes conditional compilation of method calls, depending on the specified value such as Debug or Trace. For example, it displays the values of the variables while debugging a code.

Syntax for specifying this attribute is as follows:

[Conditional(
   conditionalSymbol
)]

For example,

[Conditional("DEBUG")]

The following example demonstrates the attribute:

#define DEBUG
using System;
using System.Diagnostics;
public class Myclass
{
    [Conditional("DEBUG")]
    public static void Message(string msg)
    {
        Console.WriteLine(msg);
    }
}
class Test
{
    static void function1()
    {
        Myclass.Message("In Function 1.");
        function2();
    }
    static void function2()
    {
        Myclass.Message("In Function 2.");
    }
    public static void Main()
    {
        Myclass.Message("In Main function.");
        function1();
        Console.ReadKey();
    }
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:

In Main function
In Function 1
In Function 2

Obsolete

This predefined attribute marks a program entity that should not be used. It enables you to inform the compiler to discard a particular target element. For example, when a new method is being used in a class, but you still want to retain the old method in the class, you may mark it as obsolete by displaying a message the new method should be used, instead of the old method.

Syntax for specifying this attribute is as follows:

[Obsolete(
   message
)]
[Obsolete(
   message,
   iserror
)]

Where,

The parameter message, is a string describing the reason why the item is obsolete and what to use instead.
The parameter iserror, is a Boolean value. If its value is true, the compiler should treat the use of the item as an error. Default value is false (compiler generates a warning).

The following program demonstrates this:

using System;
public class MyClass
{
   [Obsolete("Don't use OldMethod, use NewMethod instead", true)]
   static void OldMethod()
   { 
      Console.WriteLine("It is the old method");
   }
   static void NewMethod()
   { 
      Console.WriteLine("It is the new method"); 
   }
   public static void Main()
   {
      OldMethod();
   }
}

When you try to compile the program, the compiler gives an error message stating:

 Don't use OldMethod, use NewMethod instead

Creating Custom Attributes

The .Net Framework allows creation of custom attributes that can be used to store declarative information and can be retrieved at run time. This information can be related to any target element depending upon the design criteria and application need.

Creating and using custom attributes involve four steps:

Declaring a custom attribute
Constructing the custom attribute
Apply the custom attribute on a target program element
Accessing Attributes Through Reflection

The Last step involves writing a simple program to read through the metadata to find various notations. Metadata is data about data or information used for describing other data. This program should use reflections for accessing attributes at runtime. This we will discuss in the next chapter.

Declaring a Custom Attribute

A new custom attribute should is derived from the System.Attribute class. For example,

//a custom attribute BugFix to be assigned to a class and its members
[AttributeUsage(AttributeTargets.Class |
AttributeTargets.Constructor |
AttributeTargets.Field |
AttributeTargets.Method |
AttributeTargets.Property,
AllowMultiple = true)]

public class DeBugInfo : System.Attribute

In the preceding code, we have declared a custom attribute named DeBugInfo.

C# - Reflection

Reflection objects are used for obtaining type information at runtime. The classes that give access to the metadata of a running program are in the System.Reflectionnamespace.

The System.Reflection namespace contains classes that allow you to obtain information about the application and to dynamically add types, values and objects to the application.

Uses of Reflection

Reflection has the following uses:

It allows view attribute information at runtime.
It allows examining various types in an assembly and instantiate these types.
It allows late binding to methods and properties
It allows creating new types at runtime and then performs some tasks using those types.

Viewing Metadata

We have mentioned in the preceding chapter that using reflection you can view the attribute information.

The MemberInfo object of the System.Reflection class need to be initialized for discovering the attributes asscociated with a class. To do this, you define an object of the target class, as:

System.Reflection.MemberInfo info = typeof(MyClass);

The following program demonstrates this:

using System;

[AttributeUsage(AttributeTargets.All)]
public class HelpAttribute : System.Attribute
{
   public readonly string Url;

   public string Topic  // Topic is a named parameter
   {
      get
      {
         return topic;
      }
      set
      {

         topic = value;
      }
   }

   public HelpAttribute(string url)  // url is a positional parameter
   {
      this.Url = url;
   }

   private string topic;
}
[HelpAttribute("Information on the class MyClass")]
class MyClass
{
}

namespace AttributeAppl
{
   class Program
   {
      static void Main(string[] args)
      {
         System.Reflection.MemberInfo info = typeof(MyClass);
         object[] attributes = info.GetCustomAttributes(true);
         for (int i = 0; i < attributes.Length; i++)
         {
            System.Console.WriteLine(attributes[i]);
         }
         Console.ReadKey();

      }
   }
}

When it is compiled and run, it displays the name of the custom attributes attached to the class MyClass:

HelpAttribute

C# - Properties

Properties are named members of classes, structures, and interfaces. Member variables or methods in a class or structures are called Fields. Properties are an extension of fields and are accessed using the same syntax. They use accessors through which the values of the private fields can be read, written or manipulated.

Properties do not name the storage locations. Instead, they have accessors that read, write, or compute their values.

For example, let us have a class named Student, with private fields for age, name and code. We cannot directly access these fields from outside the class scope, but we can have properties for accessing these private fields.

Accessors

The accessor of a property contains the executable statements that helps in getting (reading or computing) or setting (writing) the property. The accessor declarations can contain a get accessor, a set accessor, or both. For example:

// Declare a Code property of type string:
public string Code
{
   get
   {
      return code;
   }
   set
   {
      code = value;
   }
}

// Declare a Name property of type string:
public string Name
{
   get
   {
     return name;
   }
   set
   {
     name = value;
   }
}

// Declare a Age property of type int:
public int Age
{ 
   get
   {
      return age;
   }
   set
   {
      age = value;
   }
}

Example:

The following example demonstrates use of properties:

using System;
class Student
{

   private string code = "N.A";
   private string name = "not known";
   private int age = 0;

   // Declare a Code property of type string:
   public string Code
   {
      get
      {
         return code;
      }
      set
      {
         code = value;
      }
   }
   
   // Declare a Name property of type string:
   public string Name
   {
      get
      {
         return name;
      }
      set
      {
         name = value;
      }
   }

   // Declare a Age property of type int:
   public int Age
   {
      get
      {
         return age;
      }
      set
      {
         age = value;
      }
   }
   public override string ToString()
   {
      return "Code = " + Code +", Name = " + Name + ", Age = " + Age;
   }

   public static void Main()
   {
      // Create a new Student object:
      Student s = new Student();
            
      // Setting code, name and the age of the student
      s.Code = "001";
      s.Name = "Zara";
      s.Age = 9;
      Console.WriteLine("Student Info: {0}", s);
      //let us increase age
      s.Age += 1;
      Console.WriteLine("Student Info: {0}", s);
      Console.ReadKey();
    }
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:

Student Info: Code = 001, Name = Zara, Age = 9
Student Info: Code = 001, Name = Zara, Age = 10

Abstract Properties

An abstract class may have an abstract property, which should be implemented in the derived class. The following program illustrates this:

using System;
public abstract class Person
{
   public abstract string Name
   {
      get;
      set;
   }
   public abstract int Age
   {
      get;
      set;
   }
}
class Student : Person
{

   private string code = "N.A";
   private string name = "N.A";
   private int age = 0;

   // Declare a Code property of type string:
   public string Code
   {
      get
      {
         return code;
      }
      set
      {
         code = value;
      }
   }
   
   // Declare a Name property of type string:
   public override string Name
   {
      get
      {
         return name;
      }
      set
      {
         name = value;
      }
   }

   // Declare a Age property of type int:
   public override int Age
   {
      get
      {
         return age;
      }
      set
      {
         age = value;
      }
   }
   public override string ToString()
   {
      return "Code = " + Code +", Name = " + Name + ", Age = " + Age;
   }

   public static void Main()
   {
      // Create a new Student object:
      Student s = new Student();
            
      // Setting code, name and the age of the student
      s.Code = "001";
      s.Name = "Zara";
      s.Age = 9;
      Console.WriteLine("Student Info:- {0}", s);
      //let us increase age
      s.Age += 1;
      Console.WriteLine("Student Info:- {0}", s);
      Console.ReadKey();
    }
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:

Student Info: Code = 001, Name = Zara, Age = 9
Student Info: Code = 001, Name = Zara, Age = 10

C# - Indexers

An indexer allows an object to be indexed like an array. When you define an indexer for a class, this class behaves like a virtual array. You can then access the instance of this class using the array access operator ([ ]).

Syntax

A one dimensional indexer has the following syntax:

element-type this[int index] 
{
   // The get accessor.
   get 
   {
      // return the value specified by index 
   }

   // The set accessor.
   set 
   {
      // set the value specified by index 
   }
}

Use of Indexers

Declaration of behavior of an indexer is to some extent similar to a property. Like properties, you use get and set accessors for defining an indexer. However, properties return or set a specific data member, whereas indexers returns or sets a particular value from the object instance. In other words, it breaks the instance data into smaller parts and indexes each part, gets or sets each part.

Defining a property involves providing a property name. Indexers are not defined with names, but with the this keyword, which refers to the object instance. The following example demonstrates the concept:

using System;
namespace IndexerApplication
{
   class IndexedNames
   {
      private string[] namelist = new string[size];
      static public int size = 10;
      public IndexedNames()
      {
         for (int i = 0; i < size; i++)
         namelist[i] = "N. A.";
      }
      public string this[int index]
      {
         get
         {
            string tmp;

            if( index >= 0 && index <= size-1 )
            {
               tmp = namelist[index];
            }
            else
            {
               tmp = "";
            }

            return ( tmp );
         }
         set
         {
            if( index >= 0 && index <= size-1 )
            {
               namelist[index] = value;
            }
         }
      }

      static void Main(string[] args)
      {
         IndexedNames names = new IndexedNames();
         names[0] = "Zara";
         names[1] = "Riz";
         names[2] = "Nuha";
         names[3] = "Asif";
         names[4] = "Davinder";
         names[5] = "Sunil";
         names[6] = "Rubic";
         for ( int i = 0; i < IndexedNames.size; i++ )
         {
            Console.WriteLine(names[i]);
         }
         Console.ReadKey();
      }
   }
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:

Zara
Riz
Nuha
Asif
Davinder
Sunil
Rubic
N. A.
N. A.
N. A.

C# - Delegates

C# delegates are similar to pointers to functions, in C or C++. A delegate is a reference type variable that holds the reference to a method. The reference can be changed at runtime.

Delegates are especially used for implementing events and the call-back methods. All delegates are implicitly derived from the System.Delegate class.

Declaring Delegates

Delegate declaration determines the methods that can be referenced by the delegate. A delegate can refer to a method, which have the same signature as that of the delegate.

For example, consider a delegate:

public delegate int MyDelegate (string s);

The preceding delegate can be used to reference any method that has a single string parameter and returns an int type variable.

Syntax for delegate declaration is:

delegate <return type> <delegate-name> <parameter list>

Instantiating Delegates

Once a delegate type has been declared, a delegate object must be created with the new keyword and be associated with a particular method. When creating a delegate, the argument passed to the new expression is written like a method call, but without the arguments to the method. For example:

public delegate void printString(string s);
...
printString ps1 = new printString(WriteToScreen);
printString ps2 = new printString(WriteToFile);

Following example demonstrates declaration, instantiation and use of a delegate that can be used to reference methods that take an integer parameter and returns an integer value.

using System;

delegate int NumberChanger(int n);
namespace DelegateAppl
{
   class TestDelegate
   {
      static int num = 10;
      public static int AddNum(int p)
      {
         num += p;
         return num;
      }

      public static int MultNum(int q)
      {
         num *= q;
         return num;
      }
      public static int getNum()
      {
         return num;
      }

      static void Main(string[] args)
      {
         //create delegate instances
         NumberChanger nc1 = new NumberChanger(AddNum);
         NumberChanger nc2 = new NumberChanger(MultNum);
         //calling the methods using the delegate objects
         nc1(25);
         Console.WriteLine("Value of Num: {0}", getNum());
         nc2(5);
         Console.WriteLine("Value of Num: {0}", getNum());
         Console.ReadKey();
      }
   }
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:

Value of Num: 35
Value of Num: 175

Multicasting of a Delegate

Delegate objects can be composed using the "+" operator. A composed delegate calls the two delegates it was composed from. Only delegates of the same type can be composed. The "-" operator can be used to remove a component delegate from a composed delegate.

Using this useful property of delegates you can create an invocation list of methods that will be called when a delegate is invoked. This is called multicasting of a delegate. The following program demonstrates multicasting of a delegate:

using System;

delegate int NumberChanger(int n);
namespace DelegateAppl
{
   class TestDelegate
   {
      static int num = 10;
      public static int AddNum(int p)
      {
         num += p;
         return num;
      }

      public static int MultNum(int q)
      {
         num *= q;
         return num;
      }
      public static int getNum()
      {
         return num;
      }

      static void Main(string[] args)
      {
         //create delegate instances
         NumberChanger nc;
         NumberChanger nc1 = new NumberChanger(AddNum);
         NumberChanger nc2 = new NumberChanger(MultNum);
         nc = nc1;
         nc += nc2;
         //calling multicast
         nc(5);
         Console.WriteLine("Value of Num: {0}", getNum());
         Console.ReadKey();
      }
   }
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:

Value of Num: 75

Use of Delegate

The following example demonstrates the use of delegate. The delegate printString can be used to reference methods that take a string as input and return nothing.

We use this delegate to call two methods, the first prints the string to the console, and the second one prints it to a file:

using System;
using System.IO;

namespace DelegateAppl
{
   class PrintString
   {
      static FileStream fs;
      static StreamWriter sw;
      // delegate declaration
      public delegate void printString(string s);

      // this method prints to the console
      public static void WriteToScreen(string str)
      {
         Console.WriteLine("The String is: {0}", str);
      }
      //this method prints to a file
      public static void WriteToFile(string s)
      {
         fs = new FileStream("c:\\message.txt",
         FileMode.Append, FileAccess.Write);
         sw = new StreamWriter(fs);
         sw.WriteLine(s);
         sw.Flush();
         sw.Close();
         fs.Close();
      }
      // this method takes the delegate as parameter and uses it to
      // call the methods as required
      public static void sendString(printString ps)
      {
         ps("Hello World");
      }
      static void Main(string[] args)
      {
         printString ps1 = new printString(WriteToScreen);
         printString ps2 = new printString(WriteToFile);
         sendString(ps1);
         sendString(ps2);
         Console.ReadKey();
      }
   }
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:

The String is: Hello World

C# - Events

Events are basically a user action like key press, clicks, mouse movements etc., or some occurrence like system generated notifications. Applications need to respond to events when they occur. For example, interrupts. Events are used for inter-process communication.

Using Delegates with Events

The events are declared and raised in a class and associated with the event handlers using delegates within the same class or some other class. The class containing the event is used to publish the event. This is called the publisher class. Some other class that accepts this event is called the subscriber class. Events use the publisher-subscriber model.

A publisher is an object that contains the definition of the event and the delegate. The event-delegate association is also defined in this object. A publisher class object invokes the event and it is notified to other objects.

A subscriber is an object that accepts the event and provides an event handler. The delegate in the publisher class invokes the method (event handler) of the subscriber class.

Declaring Events

To declare an event inside a class, first a delegate type for the event must be declared. For example,

public delegate void BoilerLogHandler(string status);

Next, the event itself is declared, using the event keyword:

//Defining event based on the above delegate
public event BoilerLogHandler BoilerEventLog;

The preceding code defines a delegate named BoilerLogHandler and an event named BoilerEventLog, which invokes the delegate when it is raised.

Example:

using System;
namespace SimpleEvent
{
   using System;

   public class EventTest
   {
      private int value;

      public delegate void NumManipulationHandler();

      public event NumManipulationHandler ChangeNum;

      protected virtual void OnNumChanged()
      {
         if (ChangeNum != null)
         {
            ChangeNum();
         }
         else
         {
            Console.WriteLine("Event fired!");
         }

      }
      public EventTest(int n )
      {
         SetValue(n);
      }
      public void SetValue(int n)
      {
         if (value != n)
         {
            value = n;
            OnNumChanged();
         }
      }
   }
   public class MainClass
   {
      public static void Main()
      {
         EventTest e = new EventTest(5);
         e.SetValue(7);
         e.SetValue(11);
         Console.ReadKey();
      }
   }
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:

Event Fired!
Event Fired!
Event Fired!

C# - Collections

Collection classes are specialized classes for data storage and retrieval. These classes provide support for stacks, queues, lists, and hash tables. Most collection classes implement the same interfaces.

Collection classes serve various purposes, such as allocating memory dynamically to elements and accessing a list of items on the basis of an index etc. These classes create collections of objects of the Object class, which is the base class for all data types in C#.

Various Collection Classes and Their Usage

The following are the various commonly used classes of the System.Collection namespace. Click the following links to check their detail.

Class	Description and Useage
ArrayList	It represents ordered collection of an object that can be indexed individually. It is basically an alternative to an array. However unlike array you can add and remove items from a list at a specified position using an index and the array resizes itself automatically. It also allows dynamic memory allocation, add, search and sort items in the list.
Hashtable	It uses a key to access the elements in the collection. A hash table is used when you need to access elements by using key, and you can identify a useful key value. Each item in the hash table has a key/value pair. The key is used to access the items in the collection.
SortedList	It uses a key as well as an index to access the items in a list. A sorted list is a combination of an array and a hash table. It contains a list of items that can be accessed using a key or an index. If you access items using an index, it is an ArrayList, and if you access items using a key, it is a Hashtable. The collection of items is always sorted by the key value.
Stack	It represents a last-in, first out collection of object. It is used when you need a last-in, first-out access of items. When you add an item in the list, it is called pushing the item and when you remove it, it is calledpopping the item.
Queue	It represents a first-in, first out collection of object. It is used when you need a first-in, first-out access of items. When you add an item in the list, it is called enqueue and when you remove an item, it is called deque.
BitArray	It represents an array of the binary representation using the values 1 and 0. It is used when you need to store the bits but do not know the number of bits in advance. You can access items from the BitArray collection by using an integer index, which starts from zero.

C# - Generics

Generics allow you to delay the specification of the data type of programming elements in a class or a method, until it is actually used in the program. In other words, generics allow you to write a class or method that can work with any data type.

You write the specifications for the class or the method, with substitute parameters for data types. When the compiler encounters a constructor for the class or a function call for the method, it generates code to handle the specific data type. A simple example would help understanding the concept:

using System;
using System.Collections.Generic;

namespace GenericApplication
{
    public class MyGenericArray<T>
    {
        private T[] array;
        public MyGenericArray(int size)
        {
            array = new T[size + 1];
        }
        public T getItem(int index)
        {
            return array[index];
        }
        public void setItem(int index, T value)
        {
            array[index] = value;
        }
    }
           
    class Tester
    {
        static void Main(string[] args)
        {
            //declaring an int array
            MyGenericArray<int> intArray = new MyGenericArray<int>(5);
            //setting values
            for (int c = 0; c < 5; c++)
            {
                intArray.setItem(c, c*5);
            }
            //retrieving the values
            for (int c = 0; c < 5; c++)
            {
                Console.Write(intArray.getItem(c) + " ");
            }
            Console.WriteLine();
            //declaring a character array
            MyGenericArray<char> charArray = new MyGenericArray<char>(5);
            //setting values
            for (int c = 0; c < 5; c++)
            {
                charArray.setItem(c, (char)(c+97));
            }
            //retrieving the values
            for (int c = 0; c< 5; c++)
            {
                Console.Write(charArray.getItem(c) + " ");
            }
            Console.WriteLine();
            Console.ReadKey();
        }
    }
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:

0 5 10 15 20
a b c d e

Features of Generics

Using generics is a technique that enriches your programs in the following ways:

It helps you to maximize code reuse, type safety, and performance.
You can create generic collection classes. The .NET Framework class library contains several new generic collection classes in the System.Collections.Generic namespace. You may use these generic collection classes instead of the collection classes in the System.Collections namespace.
You can create your own generic interfaces, classes, methods, events and delegates.
You may create generic classes constrained to enable access to methods on particular data types.
You may get information on the types used in a generic data type at run-time by means of reflection.

Generic Methods

In the previous example, we have used a generic class; we can declare a generic method with a type parameter. The following program illustrates the concept:

using System;
using System.Collections.Generic;

namespace GenericMethodAppl
{
    class Program
    {
        static void Swap<T>(ref T lhs, ref T rhs)
        {
            T temp;
            temp = lhs;
            lhs = rhs;
            rhs = temp;
        }
        static void Main(string[] args)
        {
            int a, b;
            char c, d;
            a = 10;
            b = 20;
            c = 'I';
            d = 'V';

            //display values before swap:
            Console.WriteLine("Int values before calling swap:");
            Console.WriteLine("a = {0}, b = {1}", a, b);
            Console.WriteLine("Char values before calling swap:");
            Console.WriteLine("c = {0}, d = {1}", c, d);

            //call swap
            Swap<int>(ref a, ref b);
            Swap<char>(ref c, ref d);

            //display values after swap:
            Console.WriteLine("Int values after calling swap:");
            Console.WriteLine("a = {0}, b = {1}", a, b);
            Console.WriteLine("Char values after calling swap:");
            Console.WriteLine("c = {0}, d = {1}", c, d);
            Console.ReadKey();
        }
    }
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:

Int values before calling swap:
a = 10, b = 20
Char values before calling swap:
c = I, d = V
Int values after calling swap:
a = 20, b = 10
Char values after calling swap:
c = V, d = I

Generic Delegates

You can define a generic delegate with type parameters. For example:

delegate T NumberChanger<T>(T n);

The following example shows use of this delegate:

using System;
using System.Collections.Generic;

delegate T NumberChanger<T>(T n);
namespace GenericDelegateAppl
{
    class TestDelegate
    {
        static int num = 10;
        public static int AddNum(int p)
        {
            num += p;
            return num;
        }

        public static int MultNum(int q)
        {
            num *= q;
            return num;
        }
        public static int getNum()
        {
            return num;
        }

        static void Main(string[] args)
        {
            //create delegate instances
            NumberChanger<int> nc1 = new NumberChanger<int>(AddNum);
            NumberChanger<int> nc2 = new NumberChanger<int>(MultNum);
            //calling the methods using the delegate objects
            nc1(25);
            Console.WriteLine("Value of Num: {0}", getNum());
            nc2(5);
            Console.WriteLine("Value of Num: {0}", getNum());
            Console.ReadKey();
        }
    }
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:

Value of Num: 35
Value of Num: 175

C# - Anonymous Methods

Anonymous methods provide a technique to pass a code block as a delegate parameter. Anonymous methods are basically methods without a name, just the body.

You need not specify the return type in an anonymous method; it is inferred from the return statement inside the method body.

Syntax for Writing an Anonymous Method

Anonymous methods are declared with the creation of the delegate instance, with a delegate keyword. For example,

delegate void NumberChanger(int n);
...
NumberChanger nc = delegate(int x)
{
    Console.WriteLine("Anonymous Method: {0}", x);
};

The code block Console.WriteLine("Anonymous Method: {0}", x); is the body of the anonymous method.

The delegate could be called both with anonymous methods as well as named methods in the same way, i.e., by passing the method parameters to the delegate object.

For example,

nc(10);

Example:

The following example demonstrates the concept:

using System;

delegate void NumberChanger(int n);
namespace DelegateAppl
{
    class TestDelegate
    {
        static int num = 10;
        public static void AddNum(int p)
        {
            num += p;
            Console.WriteLine("Named Method: {0}", num);
        }

        public static void MultNum(int q)
        {
            num *= q;
            Console.WriteLine("Named Method: {0}", num);
        }
        public static int getNum()
        {
            return num;
        }

        static void Main(string[] args)
        {
            //create delegate instances using anonymous method
            NumberChanger nc = delegate(int x)
            {
               Console.WriteLine("Anonymous Method: {0}", x);
            };
            
            //calling the delegate using the anonymous method 
            nc(10);

            //instantiating the delegate using the named methods 
            nc =  new NumberChanger(AddNum);
            
            //calling the delegate using the named methods 
            nc(5);

            //instantiating the delegate using another named methods 
            nc =  new NumberChanger(MultNum);
            
            //calling the delegate using the named methods 
            nc(2);
            Console.ReadKey();
        }
    }
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces following result:

Anonymous Method: 10
Named Method: 15
Named Method: 30

C# - Unsafe Codes

C# allows using pointer variables in a function of code block when it is marked by the unsafe modifier. The unsafe code or the unmanaged code is a code block that uses apointer variable.

Pointer Variables

A pointer is a variable whose value is the address of another variable i.e., the direct address of the memory location. Like any variable or constant, you must declare a pointer before you can use it to store any variable address.

The general form of a pointer variable declaration is:

type *var-name;

Following are valid pointer declarations:

int    *ip;    /* pointer to an integer */
double *dp;    /* pointer to a double */
float  *fp;    /* pointer to a float */
char   *ch     /* pointer to a character */

The following example illustrates use of pointers in C#, using the unsafe modifier:

using System;
namespace UnsafeCodeApplication
{
    class Program
    {
        static unsafe void Main(string[] args)
        {
            int var = 20;
            int* p = &var;
            Console.WriteLine("Data is: {0} ",  var);
            Console.WriteLine("Address is: {0}",  (int)p);
            Console.ReadKey();
        }
    }
}

When the above code wass compiled and executed, it produced following result:

Data is: 20
Address is: 99215364

Instead of declaring an entire method as unsafe, you can also declare a part of the code as unsafe. The example in the following section shows this.

Retrieving the Data Value Using a Pointer

You can retrieve the data stored at the located referenced by the pointer variable, using the ToString() method. Following example demonstrates this:

using System;
namespace UnsafeCodeApplication
{
   class Program
   {
      public static void Main()
      {
         unsafe
         {
            int var = 20;
            int* p = &var;
            Console.WriteLine("Data is: {0} " , var);
            Console.WriteLine("Data is: {0} " , p->ToString());
            Console.WriteLine("Address is: {0} " , (int)p);
         }
         Console.ReadKey();
      }
   }
}

When the above code was compiled and executed, it produced following result:

Data is: 20
Data is: 20
Address is: 77128984

Compiling Unsafe Code

For compiling unsafe code, you have to specify the /unsafe command line switch with command line compiler.

For example, to compile a program named prog1.cs containing unsafe code, from command line, give the command:

csc /unsafe prog1.cs

If you are using Visual Studio IDE then you need to enable use of unsafe code in the project properties.

To do this:

Open project properties by double clicking the properties node in the Solution Explorer.
Click on the Build tab.
Select the option "Allow unsafe code".

C# 快速入門（三） 評論 編輯

#define預處理

條件指令

C# - Regular Expressions

Constructs for Defining Regular Expressions

The Regex Class

Example 1

C# - 異常處理

語法

C#的異常類

Handling Exceptions

C# - File I/O

C# I/O Classes

The FileStream Class

Example:

C# - Attributes

Specifying an Attribute

Predefined Attributes

AttributeUsage:

Conditional

Obsolete

Creating Custom Attributes

Declaring a Custom Attribute

C# - Reflection

Uses of Reflection

Viewing Metadata

C# - Properties

Accessors

Example:

Abstract Properties

C# - Indexers

Syntax

Use of Indexers

C# - Delegates

Declaring Delegates

Instantiating Delegates

Multicasting of a Delegate

Use of Delegate

C# - Events

Using Delegates with Events

Declaring Events

Example:

C# - Collections

Various Collection Classes and Their Usage

C# - Generics

Features of Generics

Generic Methods

Generic Delegates

C# - Anonymous Methods

Syntax for Writing an Anonymous Method

Example:

C# - Unsafe Codes

Pointer Variables

Retrieving the Data Value Using a Pointer

Compiling Unsafe Code

實例一

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